The Shih Ching or "Book of Poetry,' is the third of the five Confucian canons and was compiled by the sage at about the same time that he compiled the Shu Ching after returning to his home state. This classic is a selection of poems of the Chou Dynasty numbering 311 from the original collection which contained more than 3,000 pieces.
The whole 311 poems are arranged and grouped under three divisions according to the differences in their styles. The first division is the Per;' or " folk songs; ', the second, the Ya or " musical songs ; " and the third, the Sung or "Eulogium." The second division is again divided into two parts namely the Hiao Ya or " small musical songs" and the Ta Ya or "great musical songs."
All poems under the first division were written by the common citizens of various feudal states expressing their desires or views on subjects or affairs which were purely personal and local. These poems could, of course, be harmonized with music, but, except for the first two sections, they were seldom played by an official band before a public ceremony. Those under the second division were written by scholars or officials of the imperial government relating to subjects or affairs on political and soeial conditions of the empire. These poems were rendered in formal concerts on occasions such as court gatherings, inter-state conventions, national school assemblages and federal official banquets. Those under the third division were mostly prepared by the sages, great rulers and statesmen for the most solemn ceremonial exercises. They were used as hymns in the sacrifices to God and imperial ancestors.
Each of these divisions has its subdivision. The first or the "folk songs" are subdivided under fifteen states from which the respective poems were collected. The rest are subdivided into many Shih or" tens" of ten poems each. In the latter case the name of each Shih is made of two characters which occur in the first line of the ten poems. The title of each such poem is named also by the same method.
With few exceptions, each poem consists of from two to ten chapters, each chapter consists of from two to ten lines, and each line is generally of four characters with rhyme in the last character of every other line. The average size of a poem is about 100 characters or words. The shortest one has only 20 words, while the longest may not exceed 1,000 words.
Each chapter of a poem can be determined and classified under three types of expression. The first type is called the fu which means "state ment" or "description; " the second, the Hsing means "inspiration" or "allusion;" and the third, the Pi means "comparison" or "metaphor." When the poet had any subject or idea in mind which he stated plainly it was called fu. If he mentioned something else which inspired him, calling his attention to or reminding him of the very thing in mind which he stated later it was called Hsing. If the poet did not wish to state the subject or idea in mind but pointed at some other phenomenon which was common and simple and through which he expressed his thought or feeling in a figurative language it was called Pi. Following are translations of three chapters from three different poems which first appear in the Book of Poetry showing the example of these three types.
I.
Kwan-kwan go the ospreys,
On the islet in the river.
The modest, virtuous, young lady:
or our prince a good mate she.
This is an example of the Hsinq. The subject in the author's mind was the lady, but he mentioned first ospreys which called his attention to the subject.
II.
How the dolichos* spread itself out.
Extending to the midst of the valley!
Its leaves were luxuriant;
The yellow birds flew about,
And collected on the thick trees,
Their pleasant notes resounding far.
This is an example of the Pu. The subjects dolichos and birds are plainly described.
III.
Ye locusts, winged tribes,
Row harmoniously you collect together!
Right is it that your decendants
Should be multitudinous.
T'his is an example of the Pi. The real subject in the author's mind was the numerous offspring of the King Wen who had in fact one hundred sons. But the poet pointed to locusts and their wonderful increase as a matter resembling the subject and mentioned nothing on the subject itself.
These three types of expression, together with the three styles of writing stated above, make the "six significances "of poetry.
At the great destruction of the "Ch'in Fire," the Shih Ching was completely saved not in writing but in the memory of readers. For this classic was then the most popular book of all literature and the easiest to recite and remember. But, though the sounds of words were well preserved by memory, yet the forms and meaning of them were hardly to be recorded in a perfect condition. Besides, there were and are still many dialects in China and this fact caused great confusion in the Shih Ching while it was existing without the written characters. Moreover, the title or subject of a poem is very important to the study of it, and the life of the author is also helpful. All these essential records were lost in the great destruction, until one hundred years later, the period of Restoration, when the four schools for the study of the Shih Ching were established.
The four schools were: the school of the Lu State which was founded by Shen Kung, the School of the Ch'i State by Yuan Ku, the school of the Yen State by Han Ying, and the school of the Chao State by Mao Chang. All these schools appeared in the beginning of the Western Han Dynasty and claimed their origins to be from the disciples of Confucius. The arrangement and contents of their copies of the Shih Ching were of great similarity but several hundred characters were different and the subjects or titles of the poems varied. The first three schools were officially recognized and established in the Imperial University in the first part of this Dynasty, while the fourth was not established until the end of that period. But, since its establishment, a commentary to it was made by the famous scholar Cheng Hsuan. The latest school, the Mao. school, became very popular and important and caused the other three schools to yield ground and finally give up their existence. No complete work of the former three schools is retained ; and Mao's school is now the only resource in the study of this classic.
In the Mao's edition of the Shih Ching there is one "great preface the preface for the whole collection, and the " little prefaces " for each and every individual poem. The former is believed to be written by Ph Shang, a disciple of Confucius ; while the author of the latter is still under question. Chu Hsi, the great philosopher of the Sung Dynasty, published his commentary on the Shih Ching in the 12th Century A.D., basing it upon the Mao's edition but rejecting all "little prefaces " and substituting for them his own explanations. This commentary has since been regarded as the standard work of its kind.
It was the custom of the Chou Dynasty that every five years the emperor would take a tour through all his feudal states, and wherever he went he ordered the official historians to collect the most popular poems or songs from which he could ascertain the public opinion of people and the welfare of states. It was then also the custom that, when a state was receiving a guest or a diplomat from another state, the most celebrated poems of both states should be sung at the reception just as national songs are sung in our days. In addition to this, a special poem or a chapter of a poem fitting the very circumstance would be chosen and read by the host, and a suitable answer in the same manner would be delivered by the guest. This was why Confucius said in his analects that "Mter being able to recite three hundred odes, one is expected to act well on any governmental service and to reply unassisted to any question on a diplomatic mission."
It is a great loss to Chinese civilization that the Confucian classic of Music was destroyed and could not be restored. This lost classic had striking importance to the Shih Ching; and without the former the serviceable value of the latter is incomplete. According to Ssu-Ma Ch'ien, the Chinese Herodotus, "Confucius, in his compiling of the Shih Ching, sang over all the poems to the accompaniment of his lute, seeking for the accordance of them with the most perfect musical style." From this statement we see that the Shih Ching is more than literature and its principle is keenly related to that of music.
The first principle of music may be expressed by the single Chinese word Ho or Harmony; while the principle of the teaching of the ShIli Ching is presented by Confucius in the four words Wen, Jou, Tun, and Hou. The literary translations of these words are warm, soft, honest, and generous ; but the word gentle or mild will represent them all well. For further explanation of these words, I will quote Confucius' own sayings. "Joy not in excess, sorrow without harm, murmuring of restlessness without spite." and still another is "All through the three hundred poems, we can notice no evil thought." These sayings are applied to Chinese ancient music as well as to poetry.
The philosophy of poetry and, at the same time, that of music is solemnly and clearly stated in the "great preface." No better definition of these subjects can be found in any work in Chinese or probably in any other language.
"Poetry is the product of earnest thought. Thought cherished in the mind becomes earnest; exhibited in words, it becomes poetry.
"The feelings move inward and are imbodied in words. When words are insufficient for them, recourse is had to sighs and exclamations. When sighs and exclamations are insufficient for them, recourse is had to the prolonged and repeated utterances of song. When these are still insufficient for them, unconsciously the hands begin to move and the feet to dance.
"The feelings go forth in sounds. When those sounds are artistically combined, we have what is called musical pieces. The style of such pieces in an age of good order is quiet, going on to be joyful the government is then a harmony. Their style in an age of disorder is resentful, going on to the expression of anger; the government is then a discord. Their style, when the state is going on to ruin, is mournful with the expression of retrospective thought ; the people are then in distress.
Therefore, correctly to set forth the success or failure of govern ment, to move Heaven and Earth, and to excite spiritual beings to action, there is no readier instrument than poetry.
"The former kings by this regulated the duties of husband and wife, effectually inculcated filial obedience and reverence, secured attention to the relations of society, adorned the progressing influence of instruction, and transformed manners and customs."
If we study the Shih Ching and that by which we examine and judge the civilization of ancient China, the Chou Empire, a few special features of the people of that date are easily noticed. For these features have generally been neglected by the Chinese of later periods, and have marked a high degree in human history from the modern point of view as well.
First, we will see that the people of that date were very religious and not superstitious. Many poems mentioned T'ien or Heaven, Shen or God, and Shang- Ti or Superior Ruler as the only divinity of the worlds. In the Sung division we find in almost every poem the praising of this divinity. That "The great Heaven is our parent," "The Superior Rule is watchful over all his subjects," and that God rewards the right doer with prosperity and punishes the wrong doer with calamity, were the common belief among the ancient Chinese as among the Christians. But no mythical stories like those in the Bible were taught in the Shih Ching. The conception of T'ien or Shen or Shang- Ti was quite abstract. A passage of the Shih Ching quoted and explained by Mencius shows the spirit of the religious belief among the ancient Chinese. It says, Be always studious to be in harmony with the Heavenly Ordinance, and pray for much happiness through your own deeds." Mencius' explanation of it is thus: When we do not, by what we do, realize that which we desire, we must turn inwards and examine ourselves in every point. When a men's person is correct, the whole empire will turn to him with recognition and submission." The Heavenly Ordinance meant by the poet is, therefore, nothing more than the Law of Causality in modern science.
Second, the people were peaceable but not cowardly. Agriculture and silk-culture are still the principal professions with the four hundred million people and were more so four thousand years ago. The fifteenth section of the first division gives the husbandman's calendar the year round and describes the real rural life. Nothing is more honourable, beautiful and joyful than the Chinese farmers of olden days. Farmers are always non-military and anti-militaristic. These poems have, since the T'ang Dynasty, been illustrated, commented upon, and then printed and distributed by the imperial government to the mass of the people in order to encourage the land labourers and to show the spirit of an industrious and peaceful life. This is well Known as the pictures of the Ping Per,;' (name of that section) poems. On the other hand, these farmers were themselves the national army and were ready to answer any call of government in defending their right and honour. The following verse has served as the Chinese war song for centuries.
"How shall it be said that you have no clothes?
I will share my long robe with you.
The king is raising his forces
I will prepare my lance and spear,
And will be your comrade."
Third, the marriage system was not so strict and the social relation between man and woman was very liberal. Although it is said that "In taking a wife, without a go-between, it cannot be done," yet we learn from the Shih Chiug that picnic parties, chariot rides and flower shows were the popular amusements of both sexes, and that the lake side, the river's bank, the corner of a city wall, the forest of mulberry-trees, and some public gardens were the common places for their meetings. These good-time stories were freely and fully described in the poems. Here is a verse by a girl addressed to her lover in sentences which are highly emotional.
"If you, sir, think kindly of me,
I will hold up my skirt and cross the Chin river,
If you do not think of me,
Is there no other person to do so,
You foolish, foolish fellow
More than half of the poems in the first division are love songs and nearly all poems from the Cheng and the Wei States are of this nature. Who says that the Chinese are dignified and cold-hearted people and that Chinese literature lacks passionate expression?
Fourth, the people were all well educated and the public education reached the very lowest classes. The poems in the first division were mostly written by common men and common women. They, nevertheless, embodied high ideas and were composed in refined phrases. It is stated in an ancient historical work that in the early part of the Chou period every body possessed the quality of a gentleman. This statement is very near to the fact and its truth is shown by the Shih Ching. Special attention was paid to the education of women. About one-third of the poems were the products of female authors. This shows that the Chinese women at that time were in a better position as to social standing and had more chances to receive public education than to-day. Since the wife of a pedlar or of a common soldier was able to write a classical poem, we know the above statement of the ancient historian is not much exaggerated. Alas, after Confucius' time, poems became a special literature and poets became professional scholars. The keen interest and the beneficial influence of poetry are no longer available to any but a very small portion of the population.
The writers of these poems were not only literati but were also scholars on other lines of study. Extensive knowledge is required to read the Shih Ching. Sciences are probably more important to it than letters. Astronomy, Agriculture, Mineralogy, Zoology and Botany are the sciences mostly akin to the study of this classic. Hundreds of names of animals and plants are found in these poems. Many of these varieties are still unknown to the modern specialists. There is a new attempt on he l)art of some Chinese students to seek modern scientific information from this ancient literary collection. Its value has already been recognized by the U.S. Department of Agriculture. Besides, many governmental systems, social customs, sacrificial and other ceremonies, food, clothing, housing and domestic and ornamental articles of those early days are mentioned only in this classic and nowhere else. This lends a great service to historical research.
Confucius, on one occasion, instructed his son Po Yu that "without studying the Shih Ching, one knows not how to speak." On another Occasion lie urged him again upon this matter saying: "One who has not studied the Shih Ching is like a man standing with his face against the wall." This means that he can see nothing and can go nowhere. When Confucius facilitated the study of this classic and encouraged his desciples, he pointed out this fact among others that "The odes teach the art of sociability." It this is the case, to study the Shih Ching with a group of friends would be more interesting and beneficial than to study it alone.
The following lines are a good example of this classic:
On the trees go the boughs Cheng cheng,
And the birds cry out ying ying.
One issues from the dark valley,
And removes to the lofty tree
While ying ying goes its cry,
Seeking with its voice its companion.
Look at the bird!
Bird as it is, seeking with its voice its companion;
And shall a man
Not seek to have friends I
Spiritual being is listening to us,
Let us have harmony and peace at last.
unless otherwise indicated